Alternative and natural treatment of obesity
Introduction
Obesity is a common disorder usually caused by the interaction of genetic nutritional and environmental factors It has now become one of the most important health issues of the modern society around the world It is often associated with other diseases such as arteriosclerosis hypertension cancer diabetes and osteoarthritis Associated with obesity and overweight The Journal of the American Medical Association 1999 282 1523–1529 [Crossref] [PubMed] [Web of Science ®] [Google Scholar]3Poulos S.P.; Dodson M.V.; Hausman G.J Cell Line Models for Differentiation: Preadipocytes and Adipocytes Experimental Biology and Medicine 1998 272 564–571 [Crossref] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]3Poulos S Obesity is increasing exponentially and it has been revealed that more than 500 million adults worldwide are obese.[4Sweeting A.N.; Hocking S.L.; Markovic T.P Pharmacotherapy for the treatment of obesity: an evidence-based review J Clin Pharmacol 2010 Mar;50(3):274–84.] Treatment of Obesity Molecular Cell Endocrinology 2015 418 173–183 [Crossref] [PubMed] [Web of Science ®] [Google Scholar]]
Pancreatic lipase (PL) secreted by the pancreas is a key enzyme responsible for the digestion of 50–70% of fat into monoglycerides and free fatty acids for absorption by the entero-cytes Inhibition in the digestion and absorption of fat usually reduces its accumulation in adipose tissues Therefore one of the key targets for anti-obesity is the fat tissue Lipoprotein lipase (LPL) is an enzyme that is inhibited by the drug On the other hand lipoprotein lipase (LPL) is a rate-limiting enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of triglycerides in adipose tissue and skeletal muscle to fatty acids and glycerol Hydrolyzes the triglycerides (TG)-rich lipoproteins chylomicrons and very low-density lipoproteins (VLDL) into the release of nonesterified fatty acids (NEFA) and monoglycerides These fatty acids and monoglycerides are either used by muscles for metabolic energy or re-esterified into TG and stored as neutral lipids in adipose tissue Any imbalance in LPL activity affects the distribution of TG between muscle and adipose tissue and thus influences obesity Consequently the enzyme lipoprotein lipase (LPL) increases in the body and causes obesity The enzyme LPL is activated by a hormone called ghrelin which is produced in the stomach and increases appetite Compounds that can inhibit the activity of these lipases are supposed to function as anti-obesity agents [8Gargouri Y.; Ransac S.; Verger R Covalent Inhibition of Digestive Lipases: An In Vitro Study Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 1997 1344 6–37 [Crossref] [PubMed] [Web of Science ®] Google Scholar
There are many claims on the benefits of various plant extracts especially based on their antioxidant properties [9Newman D.J.; Cragg G.M Natural Products as Sources of New Drugs Over the Last 25 Years Journal of Natural Products 2007 70 461–477 [Crossref] [PubMed] [Web of Science ®] [Google Scholar]–12Verma R.K.; Paraidathathu T Herbal Medicines Used in the Traditional Indian Medicinal System as a Therapeutic Treatment Option for Overweight and Obesity Management: A Review International Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences 2013 6 Polyphenols found ubiquitously in the plant kingdom are effective antioxidants They inhibit enzymes or chelate trace metals involved in the production of free radicals Plants also protect their antioxidant defense system [13Dai J.; Mumper R.J Plant Phenolics: Extraction Analysis and their Antioxidant and Anticancer Properties Molecules 2010 15 7313–7352 [Crossref] [PubMed] [Web of Science ®] [Google Scholar]] The extent of oxidative damage increases as the plant ages while the plant's ability to protect itself from oxidative damage declines with age Oxidative stress markers are associated with several diseases such as obesity diabetes Alzheimer’s other neurodegenerative diseases cancer and atherosclerosis Neurodegeneration in Alzheimer's disease Brain Free Radicals 2002 36 307–1313 [Taylor & Francis Online] [Web of Science ®] [Google Scholar] –16 Furukawa S.; Fujita T.; Shimabukuro M.; Iwaki M.; Yamada Y.; Nakajima Y.; Nakayama O.; Makishima M.; Matsuda M.; Shimomura I Increased oxidative stress in obesity and its impact on metabolic syndrome Journal of Clinical Investigation 2004 114 1752–1761 [Google Scholar]] It is important to note that any actions that can reduce oxidative stress would be therapeutically beneficial.[17Halliwell B Role of Free Radicals in the Body which damage its cells.] Free radicals in the neurodegenerative diseases: therapeutic implications for antioxidant treatment Aging 2002 18 685–716 [Crossref] [Web of Science ®] [Google Scholar]–19Liu Q.; Raina A.K.; Smith M.A.; Sayre L.M.; Perry G Hydroxynonenal Toxic Carbonyls and Alzheimer Disease It is also important to relate the anti-obesity antioxidant properties of these commonly consumed herbs
Obesity is associated with a state of excessive oxidative stress which plays an important role in the pathogenesis of many diseases Stress is a clinical correlate of oxidative stress in the Framingham Study Arteriosclerosis Thrombosis and Vascular Biology 2003 23 34–439 [Crossref] [Web of Science ®] [Google Scholar]21Sfar S.; Boussoffara R Sfar M.T.; Kerkeni A Antioxidant Enzymes Activities in Obese Tunisian Children Scientists have discovered some side effects of some anti-obesity drugs and synthetic antioxidants and they are searching for safe and effective natural bioactive compounds that can target both The present study was therefore aimed to evaluate the antioxidant and anti-obesity effects of Cosmos caudatus Pluchea indica Lawsonia inermis Carica papaya Piper betle Andrographis paniculata Pereskia bleo and Melicope lunu in vitro and to determine the bioactive compounds (in the most effective way) that are responsible for these effects The bioactivity measured may have been due to an active ingredient (the extracted herb) that may be responsible for the bioactivities measured
Materials and methods
Plant materials and repairs of extracts
The leaves of Melicope lunu Carica papaya Pluchea indica Lawsonia inermis Pereskia bleo Andrographis paniculata Cosmos caudatus and Piper betle were obtained from the University Agricultural Farm at UPM The leaves are identified by the botanist from the Faculty of Forestry at UPM Specimens were submitted in herbarium with vouture numbers H016 H017 H018 H019 H020 and H021 respectively The leaves of the plants were prepared using the modified method of Chang et al.[22Chang S.S.; Ostric-Matijasevic B.; Hsieh O.A.L.; Li Huang C Natural Antioxidants from plant extracts: A review J Agric Food Chem 2010; 58(5):18 Fresh leaves were cut and washed under running water The dried plant material was ground to a fine powder and sifted for homogeneity Ethanol (100 mL) or aqueous ethanol with different ratios of ethanol and water (100:0 80:20 60:40 50:50 and 40:60) was used as extracting solvent to extract 10 grams of dried material for 24 hours at 40°C The extracts were filtered and solvent was evaporated off using rotary evaporator at room temperature The resulting viscous extract was frozen to ensure complete removal of water The dried crude extract was diluted to the required concentration for further experimental work
In vitro pancreatic lipase (PL) inhibition assay
The substrate was prepared by dissolving the lipase in 0.01 M Tris-HCL buffer (25 units/mL) and then adding a different concentration of the lipase to the substrate preparation The enzyme was dissolved in 0.01 M Tris-HCL buffer (25 units/mL) Olive oil (10% v/v) was mixed with Arabic gum mixture (10% w/v in 0.1 M Tris-HCL buffer pH 8 0.5 M NaCl) and 20 mM CaCl2) with a homogenizer Inhibition of PL by plant extracts was determined using the method reported by Fukumoto et al with some modifications.[24Fukumoto J.; Iwai W.; Tsujiska Y Studies on Lipase Purification and Rystallization of a Lipase Secretion by Aspergillus niger Journal of Applied Microbiology Vol 52 No 6 pp 879-881 (1985 The lipase solution (0.2 mL) was allowed to react with 0.5 mL of plant extract for 30 minutes at 4°C The substrate emulsion (2 mL) was then added and incubated for 30 minutes at 37°C One-mL An acetone-ethanol mixture was used to stop the reaction and then titrated with 0.02 M NaOH until the pH reached 9.4 An auto titrator was used to perform the titrations (Metrohom 785 DMP Titrino) The experiment was repeated three times for each sample extract The amount of free fatty acid liberated was measured The amount of base required by the incubation mixture was equivalent to PL activity Control sample was equivalent to 100% enzyme activity The percent inhibition was calculated based on the following equation:
The sample is the amount of base added to the sample and the control is the amount of base added to the control
In vitro lipoprotein lipase (LPL) inhibitory assay
A modified method by Schotz et al [25Schotz Μ.C.; Garfinkel A.S.; Huebotter R.I.; Steart J.Ε A Rapid Assay for Lipoprotein Lipase Journal of Lipid Research 1970 11 68–69 [Crossref] [PubMed] [Web of Science ®] [Google Scholar]] was used to prepare substrate An The activator is made of human plasma diluted to 1 μg/mL with 0.002 M Tris HCl (pH 8.0) In the preparation of substrate 0.6 mL triolein is added 24 mL apo C-II is added 3.6 mL of 1% BSA solution is added 3.6 mL of 1% triton X-100 and 28.8 mL of 0.2 Tris HCl buffer (pH The enzyme LPL was prepared by diluting with 0.02 M Tris HCl (pH 8.0) to a concentration of 25 units/mL and the activity of LPL was determined using a method reported by Chung and Scanu.[26Chung J.; Scanu A.M Continuous pH-stat Titration In a test tube 0.5 mL of LPL was added to 0.5 mL of extracts and epicatechin (100 ppm) in the presence of an enzymatic buffer solution The mixture was incubated in water at 37°C to initiate hydrolysis The reaction was stopped by adding 1 mL of 1 M NaCl Control samples consisted of a mixture of enzyme and extracts without substrate emulsion The liberated free fatty acids (FFA) were titrated with 0.01 M sodium hydroxide (NaOH) until pH 9.4 using the titration apparatus Metrohom 785 DMP Titrino The amount of liberated free fatty acid (FFA) was reflected by the amount of base required by the incubation mixture which is equivalent to The control sample was equivalent to 100% enzyme activity The experiment was repeated three times for each sample extract and the percent inhibition was calculated
Total phenolic content (TPC)
The total phenolic content of plant extracts was determined using the Folin-Ciocalteu method The method involves adding a solution of potassium ferricyanide (K3Fe(CN)6) to a mixture of the extract and water followed by addition of sulfuric acid and extraction with ethyl acetate The extract is then reduced to its elemental form filtered and evaporated The resulting residue is dried under vacuum at room temperature The guava leaf extract was tested The guava leaf extract was tested The resulting blue color was observed at 725 nm (UV Visible Spectrophotometer UV-1650 PC Japan) The concentration levels used were in the range from 0.02 to 0.1 mg/mL A standard curve was plotted with gallic acid standard and the phenolic content was expressed as mg gallic acid equivalent (GAE)/g extract
Total flavonoid content (TFC)
The total flavonoid content of plant extracts was determined spectrophotometrically according to the method adapted from Quettier-Deleu et al.[28Quettier-Deleu C.; Gressier B.; Vasseur J.; Dine T.; Brunet C.; Luyckx M.; Cazin M.; Cazin J.C.; Bailleul F.; Trotin F Phenolic Compounds and Antioxidant Activity in The method was based on the formation of a flavonoid–aluminum complex having the absorption at 430 nm Rutin was used as a marker The calibration curve is used to determine the concentration of aluminum in a sample Diluted samples (1 mL) were separately mixed with 1 mL of 2% methanolic aluminum chloride solution After incubation at room temperature for 15 min the absorbance of the reaction mixture was measured at 430 nm with a UV–Vis spectrophotometer and total aluminum was calculated according to the equation: Aluminum = A x [M] / [A-M] Where The flavonoid content of the extract was expressed as mg rutin equivalent (mg RE)/gram of extract
This test measures the ability of an antioxidant to scavenge free radicals
The scavenging activity of samples was assessed using the method described by Brand-Williams et al.[29Brand-Williams W.; Cuvelier M.E.; Berset C Use of a Free Radical Method to Evaluate Antioxidant Activity Food Science and Technology 1995 28 25–30 [Crossref] [Web of Science ®] The antioxidant activity was expressed as IC50 (defined by the concentration of samples required to scavenge 50% of the free radicals) All the experiments were performed in triplicate using ascorbic acid BHA and α-tocopherol as positive controls Plant extract (250 µL) at 100 µg/mL was used for all experiments Different concentrations of DPPH were added to 1.75 mL of 25 ppm DPPH in methanol All test samples were prepared in 24-well plates The mixture was left to stand for 30 minutes at room temperature in the dark then absorbance was noted using a spectrophotometer (Biotek EL800 Microplate Reader) at 517 nm The readings were compared to the blanks and the percent scavenging activity of the samples was then calculated using this equation:
β-Carotene–Linoleate bleaching assay
The antioxidant activity of plant extracts was also determined by a β-carotene bleaching method developed by Velioglu et al.[30Velioglu Y.S.; Mazza G.; Gao L.; Oomah B.D Antioxidant Activity and Total Phenolics in Selected Fruits Vegetables and Grain Products Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry Food Chemistry 1998 46 4113–4117 [Crossref] [Web of Science ®] [Google Scholar]] BHT was used as the standard and all the tests were performed in triplicate β-Carotene (0.2 mg in 1 mL chloroform) linoleic acid (0.02 mL) and Tween 20 (0.2 mL) were transferred into a round-bottomed flask with a stirrer thermometer and water bath A flask and a mixture of plant extracts or ethanol were added to 0.2 mL of chloroform Chloroform was removed using a rotary evaporator after which 50 mL of distilled water was added to the mixture This formed an emulsion Two-mL aliquots were taken from the emulsion for analysis Pipetted into test tubes and placed in a water bath at 50°C Absorbance measurements were taken for 2 hours at 470 nm Degradation rates (DR) were calculated according to first-order kinetics using the following equation:
where a is the initial absorbance (470nm) at time 0 b is the absorbance (470nm) at 20 40 60 80 or 100 minutes t is the time Antioxidant activity (AA) was expressed as percent of inhibition relative to control using the following formula:
A high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis
The HPLC analysis of plant extract was carried out according to the protocol developed by Crozier et al with some modifications.[31Crozier A.; Jensen E.; Lean M.E.J.; McDonald M.S Quantitative Analysis of Flavonoids by Reversed Phase High-Performance Liquid Chromatography Journal of The samples were prepared by dissolving 10 mg of crude ethanolic plant extracts in 1 mL of methanol The resulting solution was then filtered prior to analysis The standards were prepared by dissolving 1 mg One milliliter of catechin epicatechin rutin quercetin-3-rhamnoside quercetin myricetin fisetin hesperitin naringin and genistein were analyzed using HPLC system (Waters Delta 600 with 600 Controller) with photodiode array detector (Waters 996) The sample and standards were analyzed using HPLC system (Waters Delta 600 with 600 Controller) with photodiode Phenomenex-Luna (5 µm) PFP-2 (4.6 mm i.d × 250 mm) column was used and for elution of the components two solvents denoted as A and B were employed Solvent A was 0.1% formic acid in deionized water and solvent B was acetonitrile Gradient elution was performed as follows for solvent A: 2% to 100% over 10 minutes A: 0 minute (95%) 12–20 minutes (75%) 22–30 minutes (85%) 35 minutes (95%) The flow rate used was 1 mL/min and the injection volume was 10 µL The detector was set at the range of 210–366 nm The retention times peak areas and UV spectra of the major peaks were analyzed Rutin catechin and epicatechin were present in greatest abundance Quantification was done using the quercetin-3-rhamnoside standards (20–140 μg/mL)
Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC/MS) analysis
Crude ethanolic plant extracts (5 mg) were suspended in 1 mL methanol and then filtered through a PTFE filter The analysis was done on a Linear Ion Trap Quadrupole LC/MS/MS Mass Spectrometer (AB Sciex 3200QTrap LCMS/MS with Perkin Elmer FX 15 UHPLC system) The chromatography was performed using a Zorbax C18 column (150 mm × 4.6 mm × 5 μm) at 50–1200 m/z for full scan and 50–1200 m/z for MS/MS scan The separation was performed on a Zorbax C18 column (150 mm × 4.6 mm × 5 μm) at 50–1200 m/z for full scan and 50–1200 m/z for MS/MS scan Um) with a gradient mobile phase-comprising water (solvent A) and acetonitrile (solvent B) (each with 0.1% formic acid and 5 mM ammonium formate) The ionization mode used was negative The gradient program started from 10% B to 90% B for a period of 0.01 min to 8.0 min hold for 2 min and back to 10% B for a period of 0.01 min to 8.0 10% B in 0.1 min and re-equilibrated for 3 minutes with a flow rate of 800 μl/minute and an injection volume of 20 µL was used The UHPLC-MS/MS system was equipped with Analyst 1.5.2 (a mass spectrometric software) and an ACD spectral library (ACD Labs Toronto ON Canada) The resolved peaks were as follows: The leaves were identified based on their accurate masses molecular ion peaks mass fragmentation patterns and comparison with ACD mass spectral library and literature data
Statistical analysis
All the experimental data were expressed as mean ± standard deviation Data were analyzed for one-way ANOVA using SPSS 20.0 Duncan’s multiple-range test was used to assess difference between means A significant difference was considered at the level of p < 0.05
Results
Medicinal plants with antioxidant properties that inhibit the enzymes involved in fat digestion and fat accumulation are known to exhibit excellent anti-obesity properties The presence of these compounds in the body inhibits fat digestion and absorption which slows down deposition of fat into adipose tissue Results regarding the anti-obesity and antioxidant effects of understudy plant extracts are described as follows:
Herbs that can be screened as anti-obesity and antioxidant agents Herbs that can be screened for their potential to fight obesity and prevent cancer
Plant extracts that have pancreatic lipase inhibitory activities
The inhibitory characteristics of plant extracts toward pancreatic lipase were examined to evaluate their potential as antiobesity agents Results on the inhibitory activity of plant extracts toward pancreatic lipase are illustrated in Table 1. Orlistat and epicatechin were used as synthetic and natural analogs respectively The results showed that the extract from the leaf of Ocimum gratissimum (OcGr) had a better inhibitory effect than that from Ephedra sinica ( Natural positive controls were used to test the extracts The extracts were assayed at various concentrations of 62.5 ppm (0.06 mg/mL) and 1000 ppm (1 mg/mL) All the plant extracts showed increased inhibitory effect as the concentration increased except for Pereskia bleo and Carica papaya extracts Cocos nucifera extract demonstrated the highest inhibition of 21.7% at 0.5 mg/mL This is not significantly different from that of Lawsonia inermis with 20.6% inhibition at 1000 ppm Epicatechin showed moderate inhibition of 16.3% Orlistat has the highest activity with inhibition ranging from 36.6 to 26%
The anti-obesity and antioxidant activities of selected medicinal plants and phytochemical profiling of bioactive compounds
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Table 1. The inhibitory effects (%) of different plant extracts on pancreatic lipase at different concentrations
DPPH free radical scavenging capacity
The understudy plant extracts were tested for their ability to scavenge free radicals The IC50 of the understudy plant extracts varied from 31.98 to 1304.95 µg/mL indicating that Cosmos caudatus and Pluchea indica are potential free radical scavengers with IC50 less than 50. µg/mL The antioxidant capacity of both extracts was significantly different (p < 0.05) from that of ascorbic acid and α-tocopherol with IC50 less than 100 µg/mL while Lawsonia inermis and P bettle showed moderate antioxidant activities with IC50 less than 100 µg/mL while Melicope lunu Carica had a strong antioxidant activity with IC50 less than 10 µg/mL Papaya and Andrographis are the strongest free radical scavengers Papaya has an IC50 of 150 µg/mL while Andrographis has an IC50 of 12 µg/mL
Anti-obesity and antioxidant activities of selected medicinal plants and phytochemical profiling of bioactive compounds
Published online:
05 March 2017
Table 2. DPPH β-carotene-linoleic scavenging activity and TPC in different plant extracts
β-Carotene–Linoleate bleaching assay
I found that 250 ppm Lawsonia inermis exhibited the highest antioxidant activity based on β-Carotene–linoleate bleaching assay (82.0 ± 1.5%) followed by Carica papaya Pluchea indica Melicope lunu Cosmos caudatus and Pereskia bleo while the lowest activity was shown by Cinnamomum camphora and Acacia farnesiana Andrographis paniculata at 15.1 ± 2.7% (Table 2) At the same concentration the antioxidant activities of understudy plant extracts were depicted to be significantly lower than that of BHA (93.5 ± 1.8%)
Total phenolic content (TPC)
Based on the results of TPC (Table 2) the plant extracts can be divided into three ranges based on their TPC that is high middle and low ranges of TPC at <100 100–500 and >500 mg GAE/g extract Among the plant extracts Pluchea indica and Cosmos caudatus were revealed to consist of high GAE The TPC for betel leaves and papaya are moderate The least TPC is exhibited by Pereskia bleo and Andrographis paniculata The high phenolic content of Pluchea indica and Cosmos caudatus extracts might be responsible for their antioxidant activities The total phenolic content of plant extracts ranged from 715.11 ± 14.69 mg GAE/g extract (Pluchea indica) to 50.00 ± 2.35 mg GAE/g extract (Andrographis paniculata)
Study the best solvent composition for extracting cosmos caudatus with optimal anti-obesity and antioxidant potential
The first part of the study revealed that Cosmos caudatus is the most potent plant with anti-obesity effects and exhibited exceptionally high antioxidant capacity Therefore this plant was selected for further study Different ratios of ethanol and water (100:0 80:20 60:40 50:50 and 40:60) were tested as a means to determine which ratio would be most effective in reducing obesity The solvent for extraction was ethanol and water Ethanol is considered safe because it does not contain any toxic chemicals Water was chosen for the extraction because it is a non-toxic liquid Solvents are used Solvents are used to extract the oil from the seeds and leaves The antioxidant activity of herbal tea prepared from Cosmos caudatus leaves at different maturity stages was determined
The pancreatic lipase inhibitory activity of cosmos caudatus extracts
The results obtained in this study (Table 3) revealed that 100% ethanolic extract (at 1000 ppm) showed the highest inhibition (21.8 ± 1.53%) which differs nonsignificantly (p > 0.05) with 19.9 ± 1.39% inhibition observed at 500 ppm concentration However all the ethanolic extracts showed a significant inhibition of root growth which differed significantly from control plants (p > 0.05) The results showed significantly (p<0.05) lower activities compared to that of Orlistat
Medicinal plants have anti-obesity and antioxidant properties These properties are also present in medicinal plants as well as in phytochemical profiles of bioactive compounds
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Table 3. Inhibitory effects (%) of different extracts of Cosmos caudatus on pancreatic lipase at different concentrations
Cosmos caudatus extracts inhibit lipoprotein lipase Lipoprotein lipase (LPL) is an enzyme that breaks down fats in the body causing high levels of cholesterol to be released into the blood Cosmos caudatus extracts inhibit LPL preventing the release of cholesterol from the body and lowering the level of cholesterol in the bloodstream
The Ethanolic extracts of Cosmos Caudatus (40 50 60 and 80%) showed different LPL inhibition activities ranging from 11.9 to 19.9% (Fig 1) At a concentration of 0.1 mg/mL 60% Cosmos caudatus ethanolic extract showed the lowest activity (11.9 ± 1.1%) while 100% ethanol extract showed the highest activity (19.9 ± 2.0%) The highest inhibitory effect of the 40 50 and 60% Cosmos extracts was compared to that of pure epicatechin extract (12.7 ± 1.7%)
These plants are anti-obesity and antioxidant
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Figure 1. Inhibitory effects (%) of different extracts of Cosmos caudatus and Epicatechin on lipoprotein lipase (0.1 mg/mL) Values with different letters indicate significance difference (p < 0.05) measured by one-way ANOVA SPSS 20. All experiments were repeated three times with triplicate The error bars represent the standard deviation
Figure 1. Inhibitory effects (%) of different extracts of Cosmos caudatus and Epicatechin on lipoprotein lipase (0.1 mg/mL) Values with different letters indicate significance difference (p < 0.05) measured by one-way ANOVA SPSS 20. All experiments were repeated three times with triplicate Error bars represent the standard deviation
The total phenolic content of cosmos caudatus extracts
The total phenolic content of 40 50 60 and 80 percent Cosmos caudatus ethanolic extracts is shown in Table 4. The trend was similar whereby 100 percent ethanolic extract showed the highest phenolic content (865.8 ± 5.0 mg GAE/g extract) and was significantly higher (p < 0.05) than that of other extracts 80% ethanol extracts with total phenolic content of 473.8 ± 43.4 mg GAE/g extract and 80% ethanol extracts with total phenolic content of 377.1 ± 36.4 mg GAE/g extract and 60% ethanol extracts with total phenolic content of 311.8 ± 13.3 mg GAE/g extract and 50% ethanol extracts with total phenolic content of 266.3 ± 53.7 mg GAE/g
The anti-obesity and antioxidant activities of selected medicinal plants and phytochemical profiling of bioactive compounds
Published online:
05 March 2017
Table 4. DPPH TPC and TFC of different extracts of Cosmos caudatus
The total flavonoid content of cosmos caudatus extracts
Table 4 describes the total flavonoid content of different Cosmos caudatus extracts Similar to that of TPC and DPPH assay results 100% ethanolic extract showed the highest flavonoid content (398.8 ± 34.8 mg RE/g extract) and was significantly (p < 0.05) higher than that of 60% ethanol extract and 40% ethanolic extracts with flavonoid content 234.0 ± 8.4 207.2 ± 33.8 152.6 ± 23.8 and 125.2 ± 15.5 mg RE/g extract respectively
The antioxidant capacity of cosmos caudatus extracts
The extract showed the highest scavenging activity followed by 80% 60% and 40% extracts The 100% Cosmos caudatus extract showed exceptionally high antioxidant activity with a nonsignificant difference (p > 0.05) to that of BHA and ascorbic acid
The bioactive compounds in the leaves of this plant have antioxidant and anti-obesity effects
Pearson’s correlation coefficients (r) between total phenolic content and total flavonoid content with antioxidant capacity and lipase enzyme inhibitory activities of Cosmos caudatus extracts were determined The results showed strong positive correlations between antioxidant activity (DPPH) and both The same trend was also seen between anti-obesity and phenolic (r = 0.935) and flavonoid (r = 0.845) contents
HPLC and UHPLC-MS/MS analysis of cosmos caudatus extract
HPLC and UHPLC-MS/MS analysis of Cosmos caudatus extracts were carried out based on literature data and available reference standards The leaves of Cosmos caudatus are rich in antioxidants A spectrometer and a chromatograph were used to determine the flavonoid content Ten flavonoid standards (catechin epicatechin quercetin-3-rhamnoside rutin quercetin myricetin fisetin hesperitin naringin and genistein) were used to measure the flavonoid content Catechin (pronounced cat-uh-chin) is a flavonoid found in many fruits and vegetables It is a yellowish-brown bitter tasting substance that has been used for centuries to treat heart conditions high blood pressure and diabetes Rutin (rho-tin) is also a flavonoid found in many fruits and vegetables It is a red bitter tasting substance with anti-oxidant properties that has been used to treat arthritis and
Furthermore LC-MS/MS analysis of Cosmos caudatus extract shows the presence of 1-caffeoylquinic acid catechin kaempherol kaempherol glucoside quercetin quercetin-3-glucoside quercetin-O-pentoside quercetin-rhamnosyl galactoside quinic acid monogalloyl glucose and procyanidin B1 (Table 5 The findings of the previous reports on Cosmos caudatus were in agreement with the present study Science has discovered 50 medicinal plants that have a high antioxidant activity
General summary
Obesity is a major cause of disability with about 300,000 deaths per year attributed to obesity in the United States The main goal of treatment for obesity is to improve overall health not to lose weight Diet and exercise are effective long-term therapies for obesity
Obesity is one of the biggest health dangers in the world A growing number of people are facing this problem and because of the seriousness of it they are looking for ways to deal with it The most important thing about obesity is that it can lead to other diseases such as diabetes and hypertension Luckily there are researches being done to find out more about how we can deal with this problem
What herbs help with obesity?
While there is no herb that specifically targets obesity a combination of herbs can help you reach your weight-loss goals For example a study in the Journal of Medicinal Food found that a combination of two herbs – green tea extract and Gymnema Sylvestre – helped reduce weight body fat and cholesterol levels in obese adults over a 12-week period The herbal formula was found to be more effective than placebo for reducing overall body mass index (BMI) and waist circumference
Which herbal medicine is good for weight loss?
Turn to nature when looking for ways to shed extra pounds Herbal medicine can help you lose weight but only if you choose the right herbs and follow a balanced diet that includes exercise
Does milk make you fat?
Many people have the idea that drinking a lot of milk makes you gain weight This can only be true if one is drinking an enormous amount of milk in an effort to get enough calories to put on excess fat Drinking too much milk though can lead to other problems such as constipation and low bone density later in life
Is honey good for weight loss?
Yes honey can help you lose weight Honey contains a small amount of fructose sugar which is sweeter than table sugar but it also contains antioxidants that may improve insulin sensitivity and lower blood sugar levels Antioxidants also help protect your body from free radical damage Free radicals are unstable oxygen molecules that are created as a normal part of metabolism and break down foods that we eat but they can cause serious damage to cells in the body
Is lemon good for weight loss?
If you are trying to lose weight you might be looking for some natural remedies that can help One of the home remedies used for weight loss is lemon juice It is a good source of vitamin C and helps with proper digestion However it does not have any proven (or unproven) effects on weight loss
Is hot water good for weight loss?
No drinking hot water is not going to help you lose weight It does not break down fat or do anything else that can help you shed pounds even though people have been claiming for years that hot water can help with weight loss The only thing hot water might help with is digestion if your body isn't used to it; however there are no specific studies supporting this claim
Can hot water reduce belly fat?
Yes It's true that drinking hot water can help you lose weight Water helps flush out excess body toxins especially the fat-storing kind which is why it's a critical ingredient in most detox programs Drinking hot water before meals also fills you up so you'll eat less And finally hot water helps your body better absorb nutrients from food including fat-soluble vitamins and antioxidants All of these benefits are more than enough to make us rethink our lukewarm ways!
How can I burn fat naturally?
The best way to burn fat is to combine weight-bearing exercise (cardio) with a healthy diet Cardiovascular exercise and resistance training are important for burning fat but so is reducing overall calorie intake This involves eating healthily and avoiding junk food Dieting alone will have very little impact on fat loss while exercise has little impact without dietary changes A combination of both however can be extremely effective